Born-Haber Process Lab

Chemistry Lab: Haber’s Process (A Computer Simulation) Cherno Okafor Mr. Huang SCH4U7 October 8th, 2012 Introduction The Haber process is the process by which ammonia (NH3) is produced. The equation for this reaction is†¦ The symbol shown in the middle means it is a reversible reaction so the product can decompose back into the reactants. Therefore, optimum conditions must be selected to get the greatest yield. When the forward and backward reactions are the same, it is said to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium.The position of this dynamic equilibrium can be moved forward by changing the conditions the reaction is done in. This follows Le Chatelier’s Principle which says changes to a system in equilibrium will move it in an opposite direction. Condition (Dependent Variables)| Effect (Independent Variables)-Yield, Equilibrium Time, Net Profit| Pressure| Increasing this will improve the yield because the forward reaction reduces pressure. However, putting up the p ressure too far is impractical and becomes too expensive. Temperature| A higher yield can be obtained by using a low temperature since the forward reaction produces heat, but this also will make the reaction slower, and less profitable. | Catalyst| The Haber process makes use of catalysts like iron, tungsten, and platinum to speed up the reaction, however this does not improve the yield. | Note: The conditions of the Haber process must be finely balanced to reach a combination of highest yield and fastest reaction, this is very important because getting this right will make sure this industrial process is as profitable as possible.Data Collection and Processing (Raw Data): Variables| Results (No Catalyst)| Results (No Catalyst)| Results (No Catalyst)| Results (No Catalyst)| Results (No Catalyst)| Temperature ( °C)| 658| 660| 663| 677| 680| Pressure (Atm. )| 464| 482| 510| 658| 694| Time to Equilibrate (Min)| 10. 16| 10. 17| 10. 17| 10. 15| 10. 15| Yield (%) | 15. 8| 16. 3| 17. 1| 21. 2| 22. 2| Amount ($) per day| 36,454. 36| 36,413. 56 | 36,380. 36 | 36, 361. 71| 36,321. 0| RESULTS: * After this first trial using no catalysts, it is evident that the equilibrium time is extremely slow and unfortunately, only produces a small yield yet with a large amount of net profit per day. * Another thing was the temperature. The net profit and yield seemed to be at its highest when the temperatures were set at around the 600-700 °C range. With an extremely low temperature though, the time to equilibrate was close to a million years, so temperature had to be fairly high * In terms of the pressure, it had to be between the 400-700 Atm. ange (not too high so that it would yield a high cost and not too low so that it would yield a low percentage and net profit) but just in the middle * I wanted to find balance in my profit and yield, so with no catalyst, I adjusted the bars so that the temperature value was fairly close to the pressure value and the results were a greater net profit, with a reasonable equilibrium time of reaction Variables| Results (With Iron Catalyst) | Results (With Iron Catalyst)| Results (With Iron Catalyst)| Results (With Iron Catalyst)| Results (With Iron Catalyst)| Temperature ( °C)| 468| 475| 472| 473| 479| Pressure (Atm. | 721| 881| 809| 832| 989| Time to Equilibrate (Min)| 10. 18| 10. 16| 10. 17| 10. 16| 10. 18| Yield (%) | 58. 8| 63. 9| 61. 7| 62. 4| 66. 9| Amount ($) per day| 33, 793. 48| 33, 909. 39| 33, 805. 15| 33,893. 81| 33, 753. 80| RESULTS: * After this second trial, I used the catalyst of iron. Iron was by far the most profitable catalyst to use as it was not that expensive as the others (Tungsten and Platinum), and it produced a high yield with a pretty high amount as well * In terms of the temperature, it was a very typical 400-500 °C range which is also a very high temperature and the yield of ammonia would be high and my net profit as well. For pressure, I increased its value to the 700-900atm range and th is in conjunction with my high temperature range produced the best results as I produced high yields from 50-70% with the exact same time frame it took for the non-catalyst reaction to equilibrate * So obviously with the addition of the iron catalyst, I did not have to take more or less time for the equilibrium reaction to take place, I instead produced a higher yield of ammonia with a fairly large net profit, which was my goal in the first place Variables| Results (With Tungsten Catalyst)| Results (With Tungsten Catalyst)| Temperature ( °C)| 429| 435|Pressure (Atm. )| 346| 418| Time to Equilibrate (Min)| 10. 46| 10. 16| Yield (%) | 50. 4| 49. 9| Amount ($) per day| 19, 506. 24| 19, 495. 86| RESULTS: * Finally, for this last third trial, I used Tungsten catalyst. This Tungsten catalyst was not as efficient as the iron catalyst, and it also cost more. * In terms of temperature, the 400-450 °C range which was average because increasing the temperature would have created more econo mic problems such as higher costs of energy/production, etc. With iron, it was fairly easy to play around with the temperature, but for Tungsten it was more challenging. I also had to lower the pressures, but not too low so that the equilibrium time would be slow, but not too high either so that I would be losing a lot of profit because of the economic costs * As a result, this adjustments yielded only a little less than what I yielded with iron, however still a fairly high yield. The only decrease was in the net profit, because of the expenses of Tungsten. * The Temperature-Equilibrium Considerations: * One must shift the position of the equilibrium as far as possible to the right in order to produce the maximum possible amount of ammonia in the equilibrium mixture.The forward reaction of the production of ammonia is exothermic. Therefore according to Le Chatelier’s Principle, this will be favoured if one lowers the temperature. The system will respond by moving the position of equilibrium to counteract this-producing more heat. In order to get as much ammonia as possible in the equilibrium mixture, one needs as low a temperature as possible. * The Temperature-Rate Considerations: * The lower the temperature one uses, the slower the reaction becomes. In this case though as a manufacturer, I am trying to produce as much ammonia as possible per day.It makes no sense to try and achieve an equilibrium mixture which contains a very high proportion of ammonia if it takes several years for the reaction to reach that equilibrium. Therefore, one needs the gases to reach equilibrium within the very short time that they will be in contact with the catalyst (or without) in the reactor. * During my experiment lab, I noticed that the temperature range of 400-700 °C is a compromise temperature, producing a reasonably high proportion of ammonia in the equilibrium mixture, but also in a very short time. * The Pressure-Equilibrium Considerations:There are only 4 molec ules on the left-hand side of the equation, but only 2 on the right. According to Le Chatelier’s Principle, if you increase the pressure the system will respond by favouring the reaction which produces fewer molecules. That will cause the pressure to fall again. In order to get as much ammonia as possible in the equilibrium mixture, one needs as high a pressure as possible. * The Pressure-Rate Considerations: * Increasing the pressure brings the molecules closer together. In this particular instance, it will increase their chances of hitting and sticking to the surface of the catalyst where they can react.The higher the pressure, the better in terms of the rate of a gas reaction. * Economic Considerations: * Very high pressures are extremely expensive to produce on two accounts: * One has to build extremely strong pipes to withstand the very high pressure. * Also, high pressures cost a lot to produce and even maintain. That means that the running costs of your manufacture are very high for you. * During my lab, I noticed that 200 atm is a reasonable choice of pressure. If the pressure used is too high however, the cost of generating it exceeds the price you can get for the extra ammonia produced. The Catalyst-Equilibrium Considerations: * The Catalyst actually has no affect whatsoever on the position of the equilibrium. Adding a catalyst does not produce any greater percentage of ammonia in the equilibrium mixture. Its only function is to speed up the reaction. * The Catalyst-Rate Considerations: * In the absence of a catalyst, the reaction is so slow that virtually no reaction happens in any sensible time. The catalyst ensures that the reaction is fast enough for a dynamic equilibrium to be set up within the very short time that the gases are actually in the reactor.Conclusion: To sum up, the objective of this computer simulation lab was to produce a high yield of ammonia with as high a net profit as possible, while considering the economic factors suc h as energy cost, and production cost, and even catalyst costs. It turned out that I was prohibited from using platinum as a catalyst because it was too expensive. Out of the remaining catalysts: Iron, and Tungsten, Iron was the most efficient and profitable one as it is less expensive and yielded a great amount of ammonia while I was able to make a large profit as well.The Tungsten catalyst did yield a fairly high amount of ammonia, however not a very high net profit was made from it and this is again due to the economic implications of energy and production as mentioned. When I did not use any catalysts, the problem was that the time to equilibrate the reactions was atrocious, and very slow. With the criteria â€Å"highest yield and fastest reaction† in mind, the most optimal combination to produce ammonia was the 400-500 °C (479 °C) temperature range, with the 900-1000 Atm range (989atm). and along with the iron catalyst produced 66. % of ammonia, and at least $33, 000 in net profit. I chose this result as the best one because of the balance of the dependent variables of time, yield, and net profit. I could not find my way up to at least $34, 000 or above in net profit with the iron catalyst. I only managed to exceed that profit when I did not use any catalysts, but again the reaction time is way too slow and hence senseless. I probably could have kept on going to gradually adjust the temperature and pressure one by one to look for an even higher yield and net profit, but time is an issue and I would have to sit for a long time doing this.

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The process of blacks in the Diaspora (Gambia) Religious Culture - Research Paper Example Ghana sported thirty six out of the total forty two slave fortresses. In addition to Ghana, another eight African locations were utilised for shipping slaves. These included Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Bight of Benin, Bight of Biafra, Gold Coast, South East Africa, Central Africa and Senegambia. (Brown, 2000) The brunt of the slave trade was mostly borne by central and west Africa. West Africa alone contributed around three fifths of the total slave populations supplied. It is estimated that one half of slaves were exported to South America while 42% went to the Caribbean, 7% to North America and 2% went to Central America. The subsequent influence of these exported slaves was instrumental for culture in these regions. The focus of this text is to trace the religious influences of African slaves from the Senegambia region. African Americans were faced with two challenges. On the one hand they were trying to establish an independent identity and on the other hand they were cre ating various religious traditions. These religious traditions can be approximated in three articulate movements. The first stream represented results of the initial African contact with Christianity from Europe. The emerging religion was more African in character both liturgically and theologically. The second stream represented an extension of the first stream whereby religious practices developed in Africa migrated to the Americas. Though these beliefs and practices were modified in the Americas but the predominant influence remained African which aided in this stream being distinct. The third and final stream saw the amalgamation of borrowed ideals and concepts from Islam, Christianity and Judaism. These faiths and their concepts were woven as a novel fabric with visions of Africa as a historical power and in some instances as a future destination. These streams are discussed below to promote an understanding of religious influences under Diaspora. The first stream represented C hristian influences permeating into Africans often in direct proportion to the social class in question. The higher classes had lowest African influence and greatest Christian influence and vice versa. Traditional practices of hoodoo and voodoo as well as other derivatives of primitive West and West Central African religions crept into the newly adopted Christian faith. This was all the more apparent in the American South. Religious services saw the use of songs and dancing as well as the possession by the Holy Ghost during these services. Similarly the Caribbean witnessed Christianity imbued with overwhelming African content. This hybrid religion was connected with obeah, the use of supernatural powers to cause harms to others and to myalism, the use of herbs and spiritual resources in order to combat witchcraft and evil spells. Alternatively the religions of convince and kumina also took root. Convince involved respect for the Christian diety along with an active veneration of anc estors by spiritual healers known better as Bongo men. In a similar manner, kumina held ancestors in great veneration and ranked them after the sky gods and earthly deities. In contrast to the above, the second stream was more prominently experienced in Cuba and Brazil where reinvented African religion was the centre of religious attention. The various ethnic kinds of African slaves that were brought to Brazil maintained distinct identities by sticking to

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The Human Reproductive System Essay The human reproductive system requires both the female and male to procreate. Although the reproductive organs will function separately, they will not create another human being without each other. The Male Sperm   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The male reproductive system is more external than the female. Sperm must be created to fertilize the female’s egg and this is done in the testes or testicles of the male. Sperm are mobile cells that contain the male’s chromosomes, to be passed on the offspring. There are hundreds of thousands of sperm produced during a male’s lifetime, all of which have the potential to fertilize an egg. Sperm die off and are recreated at the rate of 1% day and sperm that are released from the body live only a few hours. Scrotum The testes are contained in a fleshy pouch known as the scrotum, which hangs outside the male body in the groin area. The testes themselves are actually over 850 feet of tiny tubing, curled into two balls inside the scrotum. It is in these tubes that the sperm are formed. The scrotum is a highly sensitive area. Normal body temperature will kill the sperm due to their sensitivity to high temperatures; this is why the scrotum lies outside the body rather than internally. In cold weather, the scrotum will pull the testicles closer to the body to maintain the proper temperature. Once formed the sperm must pass through into the epidiymis, which is a larger tube that stores the sperm and lets them mature until it is time to be ejaculated into the female. The epidiymis is encased in the scrotum along with the testes. Ducts   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When the sperm is ready to be ejaculated it leaves the epidiymis and travels through the vasa deferentia. The vasa deferentia extend from the epidymis and go around the bladder in many different directions. The ends of the vasa deferentia are called ejaculatory ducts. These ducts are located behind the bladder and empty into the urethra. Before the sperm reach the urethra they must also travel through the seminal vesicles, which are also located behind the bladder. Accessory Glands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The seminal vesicles are part of a group of accessory glands. The seminal vesicles add the semen that coats the sperm during ejaculation. The seminal fluid â€Å"contains mucus, amino acids, fructose as the main energy source for the sperm, and prostaglandins to stimulate female uterine contractions to move the semen up into the uterus.† (biology.clc.uc.ed, 2007)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Inside the body, at the beginning of the urethra, is the prostate gland. The prostate gland is considered an accessory gland and is the largest of these glands. It secretes directly into the urethra and mixes with the seminal fluid. The secretions of the prostate gland are high in alkaline. Alkaline neutralizes the acid left by urine and produced by the female body. It protects the sperm as they make their way through the female to the egg.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hanging from the front of the abdominal cavity on the outside of the body, in front of the scrotum, is the penis. It is made from several cylinders of spongy, erectile tissue. When the male becomes sexually excited, the spongy tissue becomes filled with arterial blood and the veins, which allow this blood to drain off to other areas, seal off. This causes an erection, which is required for ejaculation. The erection is also required to be able to enter the female’s vagina and fertilize the egg. Running through the center of the penis is a hollow tube called the urethra. It allows semen or urine to be released from the body. The male reproductive system  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookREPROD.html The Female   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The female reproductive organs are internal and produce eggs rather than sperm. The eggs are produced in the ovaries, which are located on either side of the abdominal cavity. The â€Å"eggs† are not like chicken or other animal eggs but more like a collection of special cells. While a female has almost a half million eggs at birth, only about 500 will be released from the ovaries during the time that she is fertile and able to reproduce. Eggs   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The eggs are formed with a process known as â€Å"meiosis†. This means that the egg only has half of the chromosomes needed to complete a new being. The process known as fertilization provides the other half of the needed chromosomes, thus giving the offspring half from each contributing parent. Of the hundreds of thousands of eggs a female is born with, only about 300 of these are ever released to be fertilized. Ovaries   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The ovaries, located on either side of the abdominal wall, create the eggs that are released for fertilization. The ovaries are connected to the fallopian tubes and store the unused eggs as well.   Ovaries also produce the female hormone estrogen, which affects mood, weight and other aspects of the body. Fallopian Tubes From the ovaries are the fallopian tubes, which extend from the ovaries on each side and down into the females uterus. The fallopian tubes lead into the uterus where the fertilized egg will remain as it gestates. In the female human, hormones contribute to the egg being released into the fallopian tubes. This is normally limited to one egg per cycle. Ovulation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ovulation is the period when an egg matures and is released into the fallopian tubes. This is â€Å"due to the stimulation of leutenizing hormone (LH), which then stimulates the remaining follicle cells to turn into a corpus luteum which then secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible implantation. If an egg is not fertilized and does not implant, the corpus luteum disintegrates and when it stops producing progesterone, the lining of the uterus breaks down and is shed.† (biology.clc.uc.ed, 2007) Uterus   Ã‚  Ã‚   The uterus is located in the female abdominal cavity. It is lined with millions of cilia. These are tiny follicles that both attach the egg to the wall of the uterus and sweep the lining out when the egg disintegrates. At the end of the uterus is the cervix. The cervix has thick walls and a tiny opening leading into the vaginal canal. The cervix will open to pass the baby through when it is time for it to be born. Vaginal Canal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The vaginal canal extends from the cervix to the outside opening of the female vagina. It allows the penis to be inserted to fertilize the egg, pass menstrual blood out of the body and allow a baby to pass from the body. The walls are highly elastic and will stretch to accommodate the baby’s head. The Vagina   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The vagina is the outer area of the female reproductive system. It contains the opening leading to the vaginal canal and a tiny opening located right above it. This is the urethra and it allows urine to pass from the body. Directly above the urethra is the clitoris. This is the female counterpart to the male penis and is also highly sensitive. Covering the openings is the vulva. This consists of inner and outer labia, which are folds of skin. The vulva becomes covered with body hair when the female matures. Fertilization   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fertilization of the egg occurs when the sperm meet the egg at the far end of the fallopian tube. The sperm fertilize the egg, the egg implants itself into the lining of the uterus and a new human is created. The female reproductive system  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookREPROD.html References http://emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookREPROD.html http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/reproduc.htm http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/female_reproductive_system.html